Europe Mask History Part 3

As much as there was celebration in Europe, there was horror, In 13^th century Europe, the Black Death. Masks have a role to play even in this dark period. The pandemic wasted the country side, killing hundreds of millions of people. During this time, plague doctors would go from home to home to tend the sick. The mask they wore, while intending to be protective, also became a symbol of the plague itself. The mask, called the bird mask, looked just like that. It had a long beak, sometimes up to half a metre (1.5 feet) in length. The protective intent was in the beak itself; they were believed to be filled with herbs to help protect them from the airborne virus. The herbs also helped to stave off the smell of the dead and dying around them. It was believed during that time that the virus was from birds, so possibly the bird head was a way to try and ward off other birds and possibly the virus in some manner. What is also interesting to note, though seldom mentioned, is that the bird head often resembled that of a raven, a bird associated with death. For the poor person suffering from the plague, a visit by the doctor was a signal that the end was near. Many died with the beaked head being the last thing they saw before leaving this world.

Masks would have another dark use duing the middle ages. Rome was advancing quickly with technologies, such as running and heated water, paved roads, and a bustling economy. Rome was also becoming a bloodthirsty society, and the dungeons were filled with those who had felt Rome’s wrath. Torture was in regular use, and masks would play a violent part in this age. Ranging from simple iron masks which held the captive in perpetual darkness (respectively speaking a symbolic “slap on the wrist”), to head pieces which would choke, maim and kill. The masks, often in grotesque shapes and forms, had a psychological effect on those who were to sentenced to wear them, instilling fear in the intended victims. Masks ranged from a “bridal’s scold”, a mask that had a hinged piece of metal that went in the mouth, forcing the victim to close their mouth in order to relive pressure, but also preventing them from talking. Similar masks, often adorned with long tongues and big ears, were worn by shamed people accused of gossip and heresy. They would often sit in town squares to be humiliated and jeered by the townsfolk.

From the 14^th to the early 16^th centuries, processional theatre went on the move, and masks went with them. Travelling in carts and carriages, theatre troupes would travel from town to town, performing for alms, food and shelter. In Spain, we can also see performers putting on mini performances, going from town to town, with a number of “sets” making up one play. These productions would become often more farcical with bawdy humour, much to the delight of the townsfolk. This continued until end of the 16^th century. At this point, Protestant Reformers were growing in the countries. They took offense at this theatre and attempt to quash it and the masks they wore. It seemed a repeat of the 5^th Century “Dark Ages”. An exception is with the Catholic Church, who feels theatre is important, provided is “dogmatically correct”, so theatre survives in some places under this form until the 18^th Century.

The Age of Enlightenment was growing. Spirituality, theatre, and symbolism were slowly becoming seen as unnecessary. Logic, science, and a greater understanding of the universe were now important. Masks would disappear with the arts and rituals for the next century as an attempt to place science at the forefront of society. So during this time masks were once again confined to the dustbin of history. The enlightenment would continue until the close to the 19^th century-the French revolution and similar started to change the tides.Some suggest that, while logic and intelligence was important, education was also important. Because it was only the upper classes that could obtain education, it became a case of “have and have not”. As a result, the poor were seen as unimportant and pushed down. The revolution would change this as freedom of expression, including art and spirituality would again come to the forefront. Masks would come forth again in theatre and Carnival.

The celebrations continued, though even the celebrations seemed to be getting carried away. Violence and out of control rowdiness brought things to a close. The Carnival in Venice was stopped in 1797, which is surprising considering that it survived through the days of Enlightenment where the rest of Europe was asked to put down mask use and theatre.

Europe Mask History Part 2

With the fall of Rome in 410 BCE, the “Dark Ages” is considered to have begun. They would continue until around the 4-5^th century CE, though there were slow beginnings around 1^st century CE. As Europe crawled out from the Dark Ages, where theatre seems to have no history, the first millennium shows a rebuilding and an interest in the arts again, not seen since just before the beginning of the Common Era. In France and Rome, medieval drama was starting. Storytelling started in the churches, in the form of bible history. These were seen as a physical alternative to sermons. The visual nature of the plays was meant to appeal to the parishioners. In 800 CE, Christianity was pouring into the Roman Empire, including the formerly Celtic lands. Believing in the singular deity, the idea of worshipping multiple gods was abhorred by the Christians. The Christians, therefore, were believed to be understandably shocked at the rituals involving the passing of the dead, and of multiple god and goddess worship. Wearing masks was seen as idolatry or devil worship, as well as other celebrations that they deemed as “pagan”. To convert these believers, they kept the celebration of honouring the dead (like the Romans before them), but changed the idea, turning it into a three day festival. This was not changed at once, but their days were allowed to melt into the now Romans (and Celts) beliefs. To help the conversion of the days, the 31^st of Halloween was now called All Hallows Eve, the day set aside to be to be hallowed to the past ancestors.

As the centuries passed, The churches felt that they had to get the stories to the larger populations outside the churches. As a result, the stories were told to bigger and bigger audiences, and simple ritual storytelling evolved to theatrical productions. They would eventually take their stories outdoors, and in the 12^th century, there are records of priests setting up a platform and performing in France. Called “The Mystery of Adam”, the play tells the story of Adam and Eve, but also with the inclusion of devils and demons. It was the performing outside, on a platform, that allowed performer to get more elaborate with the story. This t story sums up as Adam and Eve are dragged away by the demons into a smoking pit. No doubt there were many masks in these productions, particularly for the demons. Also during this time we see the beginnings of farce. There is question as to how farce evolved. Some suggest at this time that it was storytelling adapted from pagan stories; others suggest that the drama stories that were being told had some farcical elements to break up tension.

So the conjunction of the hallowed days and the use of masks in theatre continued. The practice of the Hallows Eve continued with the 31^st, 1^st of November would be All Saints Day, where past saints would be remembered, and in 1000 AD Nov 2 became All Souls Day, the final day of memorial for past souls. The idea of masks and costumes was further developed, for the belief of keeping evil spirits at bay. The masks were either encouraged to be more Christian ideals, like angels, or if demon faces were insisted, it was the idea to scare off other demons, not to idolize them (as the Christians believed was happening). Along with this was the practice of “souling”; going door to door asking for soul bread. The bread would then be brought home to offer to the ancestors.

The path to the well known Venice Carnival starts in 1094. The word ‘Carnival’ actual derives its name from the phrase carnem levare, ‘to put away meat’. In many Mediterranean cities up to this point the holiday stemmed from agriculture, celebrations of Dionysus and other gods of harvest. The celebrations were of ritual, of masks and dancing, celebrating the upcoming year for harvest and thanks for the previous. As Christianity rose, the rituals would die down. The Christians still wanted to convert the people, so, like Hallows Eve, festivals were held, including “Feast of Fools” and “Feast of the Innocent”, which were variations on previous pagan celebrations. These were held between Epiphany and Ash Wednesday. Fancy dress balls and Masquerades were very popular during time and these would carry forward. Each city has tailored their own celebrations since then. Thus Carnival was used as a way of ingratiating others into Christianity (and in this case, Catholicism). The earliest reference to Carnival is in a charter written by Doge Vitale Michael. He makes reference to ‘carnis laxatio’, or ‘forsaking of the flesh’. The indication is even at this time in history; the Venetians were finding were very wealthy and constantly looking for diversions and entertainment. In 1162, The Patriarch of Aquileia, Ulhico attacked the town of Grado with twelve armies from various towns. The people ran over the city and took it over in short order. The Venetians , under Doge Vitale Michael grouped and gathered an armada of ships. With troops and ships, Doge recaptured Grado and defeated Ulhico. Doge captured Ulhico and many of his army. Instead of killing them, they spared their lives and sent them out of the town. Although this seems like mercy, it was not without a price. In return for their lives being spared, Ulhico was obligated to send a bull(it ended up being an ox) and 10 pigs each year to symbolise the defeated army. In a form of great pageantry, every year the ox and pigs, the “prisoners”, were marched like the condemned through the streets, with the crowds watching. The pigs and ox were “executed” by a town butcher picked for that year, and the meat would feed the festival which followed. The celebration was allowed in San Marco square, where Carnival finds its roots.

In 13^th century Europe and Venice, masks were coming into use in lent related celebrations. Lent is the Catholic ritual that involves the abstinence of a vice for a period of 40 days. The forty days were symbolic of the forty days Jesus was said to have 1wandered the desert until he found his ministry. Therefore, the celebration would allow drinking, sex or other vice, before settling down for forty days. Masks meant you remained anonymous during these celebrations, and would not be held against you at later times. Masks also meant that the “higher” classes could associate with the “lower”, thus making an equal social ground. Eventually there had to be some restrictions, in the form of laws. The first written example of masks in any capacity during this time is from a law in 1268. It pertains to masqueraders being forbidden from playing a game called “eggs”, a game in which Venetian boys would throw perfumed eggs at passerby or from balconies. During this period, Carnival would start on St. Stephens Day (December 26) and continue to Ash Wednesday. The Tuesday before is known as Shrove Tuesday, also known as “Fat Tuesday”, or Mardi gras? This proceeded Ash Wednesday, the day before Lent. Different countries celebrate differently, some use the whole time between New Year and Lent as Carnival, others like Venice had a slow ramp up, with the last two days being the pinnacle of the celebrations. In 1339, law was introduced of masqueraders being prevented from being on city streets at night. In 1458 male mask wearers were forbidden to dress as women and enter convents to partake in less than “pure” social relations. There seemed to be a problem with inappropriate activities with nuns. And in 1608 mask wearers were finally told in law that they were obligated to wear masks only during carnival and official banquets. The question may be what type of punishment awaited those who wore their masks flagrantly? Quite severe it seems. Breaking one these laws would see a man sent to two years in prison, or eighteen months of rowing servitude (rowing in slave ships). Women who broke the rules were whipped. Having a mask did not give you free reign to do what you wished. Coming back to Carnival itself, there were spectacles to see. There were different sections of town with different activities. In one section would be a human pyramid and other feats of strength. There was a masked ballet performed by women in another. A bloody bull beheading contributed to the sacrificial aspect of Carnival. The highlight of the carnival was the “Dove Flight”. A rope was strung from the bell tower to Doge place. A condemned that was chosen prisoner would walk this rope. If he made it to the end, he was given gifts and his freedom. The only other alternative was to fall to his death. Over time this was replaced with a metal dove that slung down the rope to Doge place. Eventually the practice was returned with an “Angel Flight”, which has a supported performer now resuming the symbolic trip.

Europe Mask History Part 1

Europe:  Neolithic to Iron Age (30000 BCE-1200 BCE

Today we put on masks for various reasons, and think little of where it all started. When did we start putting on masks, and why? Masks have been a part our world and our lives since the Neolithic period. With the exception of Antarctica, masks have a history on each of the continents in our world. In this part we will look at each of these continents and establish a historical timeline of masks in each, ending in modern day. The purpose of this chapter is to get a better understanding of how the mask came to be used in these societies. Masks have been used for many things during this time; spiritual ceremony, theatre, celebration, and burial are among the uses. So did we get from a world of masks in our caves to wearing a latex mask at a celebration?  The answer, and our journey, begins in post-modern human France.

Masks by their very nature make us question reality, so it seems appropriate that the first physical mask would be one of debate.  Found in La Roche, France, the stone artefact seems to certainly appear like the upper part of a face. It appears to be a flat stone with a “brow” across the top. There are indentations below the brow, that look to be carved. Wedged between the two “sockets” is a piece of bone, obviously deliberately placed there. The whole appearance gives the view of brow, eyes and nose.  The debate ranges about the mask, believed to be carved by Neandrathal about 33,000 years ago. While there is a contingent that believe that it was carved, and the implanted stone supports that they feel, another group feels that there isn’t enough evidence that the item in question is actually made to look like a face, but possibly some other artifact or even a naturally occurring rock with an implanted bone for whatever reasons.  It is also debated whether they had the mental and abstract ability of their Cro-Magnon counterparts. It certainly is an interesting idea that abstract and artistic reaches this far back in history. There have been Neanderthal graves found with items such as stone tools, suggesting that they already were thinking about life after death. Currently there is more support for the “mask” theory, but it is far from definitive. We will see shortly which mask holds the title as an “early example” of mask making.

  Moving forward about twenty thousand years, the mask would make its first “official” appearance  in cave paintings dating  from 13000 BCE.  In Ariege, France, there is a painting in which there appears to be a human figure wearing a goat head. Dubbed “The Sorcerer” by archaeologists, it is suggested that the figure represents what appears to be a Shaman performing a ritual. The figure is not believed to be a hybrid goat and human, as if it were some new species, but a human wearing a mask. The common belief is that the cave could very well have been a place of worship and ritual. It is one of the earliest examples of the possibility of masks and ritual being used together. The figure being represented may have been someone who used masks in ceremony, possibly trying to channel the animal world or commune with spirits. Little more is known about the actually significance of the painting, other than there are other caves with similar images in Europe and elsewhere. The appearance of these “mask” wearing images do provoke discussion.

Moving forward to the Neolithic period, approximately 7000 BCE, we can find the oldest confirmed physical mask artifacts, as they have been defined by archeologists as “true examples” of early masks.  They are stone in manufacture, with a plain face, with eyes, and open mouth. One such mask is found in the Musée de la bible et Terre Sainte, France. While we don’t know their significance, it is has been thought, that, like “The Sorcerer”, it is believed they had a ritualistic use. Unlike The mask of La Roche, there is general consensus that this is indeed a mask and not something else. The carving is too deliberate, the eye and mouth openings are in their correct position, and the shape in oval, like that of a human face.  What it does suggest again is that humans were using masks as a way of understanding the world around them and a way of understanding themselves since before the Common Era. With abstract thought came the concept of “me”. The idea is that they were trying to figure out themselves as their own identity, and differentiate themselves from other animals, and from other humans. Stone mask artifacts are found elsewhere as well.  In modern day Yugoslavia, there are also artefacts from the Neolithic period. They are statues of what appear to be people wearing masks. Unlike the stone masks, these show variety in shape and expression. The statues also had sculpted hair, showing different physical appearances from 3500 BC towards the beginning of the Common Era. Also during this era the Ain Ghazal in Jordan were making stone masks to bury their dead. The masks were detailed and looked more “human” than that of the mask in Terre Sainte.